@article{GHCNd:Menne.etal.2012a,
	title = {Global {Historical} {Climatology} {Network} -  {Daily} ({GHCN}-{Daily}), {Version} 3.32},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.7289/V5D21VHZ},
	urldate = {2025-04-09},
	journal = {NOAA National Climatic Data Center},
	author = {Menne, M. J. and Durre, I. and Korzeniewski, S. and McNeill, S. and Thomas, K. and Yin, X. and Anthony, S. and Ray, R. and Vose, R. S. and Gleason, B. E. and Houston, T. G.},
	year = {2012},
}

@article{GHCNd:Menne.etal.2012b,
	title = {An {Overview} of the {Global} {Historical} {Climatology} {Network}-{Daily} {Database}},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0739-0572, 1520-0426},
	doi = {10.1175/JTECH-D-11-00103.1},
	abstract = {A database is described that has been designed to fulfill the need for daily climate data over global land areas. The dataset, known as Global Historical Climatology Network (GHCN)-Daily, was developed for a wide variety of potential applications, including climate analysis and monitoring studies that require data at a daily time resolution (e.g., assessments of the frequency of heavy rainfall, heat wave duration, etc.). The dataset contains records from over 80 000 stations in 180 countries and territories, and its processing system produces the official archive for U.S. daily data. Variables commonly include maximum and minimum temperature, total daily precipitation, snowfall, and snow depth; however, about two-thirds of the stations report precipitation only. Quality assurance checks are routinely applied to the full dataset, but the data are not homogenized to account for artifacts associated with the various eras in reporting practice at any particular station (i.e., for changes in systematic bias). Daily updates are provided for many of the station records in GHCN-Daily. The dataset is also regularly reconstructed, usually once per week, from its 20+ data source components, ensuring that the dataset is broadly synchronized with its growing list of constituent sources. The daily updates and weekly reprocessed versions of GHCN-Daily are assigned a unique version number, and the most recent dataset version is provided on the GHCN-Daily website for free public access. Each version of the dataset is also archived at the NOAA/National Climatic Data Center in perpetuity for future retrieval.},
	language = {EN},
	number = {7},
	journal = {Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology},
	author = {Menne, Matthew J. and Durre, Imke and Vose, Russell S. and Gleason, Byron E. and Houston, Tamara G.},
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {Reference, Data processing, Databases},
	pages = {897--910},
}

@article{GHCNd:Durre.etal.2010,
	title = {Comprehensive {Automated} {Quality} {Assurance} of {Daily} {Surface} {Observations}},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {1558-8424, 1558-8432},
	doi = {10.1175/2010JAMC2375.1},
	abstract = {This paper describes a comprehensive set of fully automated quality assurance (QA) procedures for observations of daily surface temperature, precipitation, snowfall, and snow depth. The QA procedures are being applied operationally to the Global Historical Climatology Network (GHCN)-Daily dataset. Since these data are used for analyzing and monitoring variations in extremes, the QA system is designed to detect as many errors as possible while maintaining a low probability of falsely identifying true meteorological events as erroneous. The system consists of 19 carefully evaluated tests that detect duplicate data, climatological outliers, and various inconsistencies (internal, temporal, and spatial). Manual review of random samples of the values flagged as errors is used to set the threshold for each procedure such that its false-positive rate, or fraction of valid values identified as errors, is minimized. In addition, the tests are arranged in a deliberate sequence in which the performance of the later checks is enhanced by the error detection capabilities of the earlier tests. Based on an assessment of each individual check and a final evaluation for each element, the system identifies 3.6 million (0.24\%) of the more than 1.5 billion maximum/minimum temperature, precipitation, snowfall, and snow depth values in GHCN-Daily as errors, has a false-positive rate of 1\%−2\%, and is effective at detecting both the grossest errors as well as more subtle inconsistencies among elements.},
	language = {EN},
	number = {8},
	journal = {Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology},
	author = {Durre, Imke and Menne, Matthew J. and Gleason, Byron E. and Houston, Tamara G. and Vose, Russell S.},
	year = {2010},
	keywords = {Data processing, Data quality control, Snowfall},
	pages = {1615--1633},
}

@article{GHCNd:Durre.etal.2008,
	title = {Strategies for {Evaluating} {Quality} {Assurance} {Procedures}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {1558-8424, 1558-8432},
	doi = {10.1175/2007JAMC1706.1},
	abstract = {The evaluation strategies outlined in this paper constitute a set of tools beneficial to the development and documentation of robust automated quality assurance (QA) procedures. Traditionally, thresholds for the QA of climate data have been based on target flag rates or statistical confidence limits. However, these approaches do not necessarily quantify a procedure’s effectiveness at detecting true errors in the data. Rather, as illustrated by way of an “extremes check” for daily precipitation totals, information on the performance of a QA test is best obtained through a systematic manual inspection of samples of flagged values combined with a careful analysis of geographical and seasonal patterns of flagged observations. Such an evaluation process not only helps to document the effectiveness of each individual test, but, when applied repeatedly throughout the development process, it also aids in choosing the optimal combination of QA procedures and associated thresholds. In addition, the approach described here constitutes a mechanism for reassessing system performance whenever revisions are made following initial development.},
	language = {EN},
	number = {6},
	journal = {Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology},
	author = {Durre, Imke and Menne, Matthew J. and Vose, Russell S.},
	year = {2008},
	keywords = {Quality assurance/control},
	pages = {1785--1791},
}

@article{GHCNh:Menne.etal.2023,
	title = {Global {Historical} {Climatology} {Network}-{Hourly} ({GHCNh}), {Version} 1.0.1},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.25921/jp3d-3v19},
	urldate = {2025-05-12},
	journal = {NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information},
	author = {Menne, Matthew J. and Noone, Simon and Casey, Nancy W. and Dunn, Robert H. and McNeill, Shelley and Kantor, Diana and Thorne, Peter W. and Orcutt, Karen and Cunningham, Sam and Risavi, Nicholas},
	year = {2023},
}

@article{GHCNh:Dunn.etal.2016,
	title = {Expanding {HadISD}: quality-controlled, sub-daily station data from 1931},
	volume = {5},
	issn = {2193-0856},
	shorttitle = {Expanding {HadISD}},
	doi = {10.5194/gi-5-473-2016},
	abstract = {HadISD is a sub-daily, station-based, quality-controlled dataset designed to study past extremes of temperature, pressure and humidity and allow comparisons to future projections. Herein we describe the first major update to the HadISD dataset. The temporal coverage of the dataset has been extended to 1931 to present, doubling the time range over which data are provided. Improvements made to the station selection and merging procedures result in 7677 stations being provided in version 2.0.0.2015p of this dataset. The selection of stations to merge together making composites has also been improved and made more robust. The underlying structure of the quality control procedure is the same as for HadISD.1.0.x, but a number of improvements have been implemented in individual tests. Also, more detailed quality control tests for wind speed and direction have been added. The data will be made available as NetCDF files at http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/hadobs/hadisd and updated annually.},
	language = {English},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems},
	author = {Dunn, Robert J. H. and Willett, Kate M. and Parker, David E. and Mitchell, Lorna},
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {Reference},
	pages = {473--491},
}

@article{GSDR:Lewis.etal.2019,
	title = {{GSDR}: {A} {Global} {Sub}-{Daily} {Rainfall} {Dataset}},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {0894-8755, 1520-0442},
	shorttitle = {{GSDR}},
	doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-18-0143.1},
	abstract = {Extreme short-duration rainfall can cause devastating flooding that puts lives, infrastructure, and natural ecosystems at risk. It is therefore essential to understand how this type of extreme rainfall will change in a warmer world. A significant barrier to answering this question is the lack of sub-daily rainfall data available at the global scale. To this end, a global sub-daily rainfall dataset based on gauged observations has been collated. The dataset is highly variable in its spatial coverage, record length, completeness and, in its raw form, quality. This presents significant difficulties for many types of analyses. The dataset currently comprises 23 687 gauges with an average record length of 13 years. Apart from a few exceptions, the earliest records begin in the 1950s. The Global Sub-Daily Rainfall Dataset (GSDR) has wide applications, including improving our understanding of the nature and drivers of sub-daily rainfall extremes, improving and validating of high-resolution climate models, and developing a high-resolution gridded sub-daily rainfall dataset of indices.},
	language = {EN},
	number = {15},
	journal = {Journal of Climate},
	author = {Lewis, Elizabeth and Fowler, Hayley and Alexander, Lisa and Dunn, Robert and McClean, Fergus and Barbero, Renaud and Guerreiro, Selma and Li, Xiao-Feng and Blenkinsop, Stephen},
	year = {2019},
	keywords = {Rainfall, Reference, Climate records, Data processing},
	pages = {4715--4729},
}

@article{GSDR:Guerreiro.etal.2018,
	title = {Detection of continental-scale intensification of hourly rainfall extremes},
	volume = {8},
	copyright = {2018 The Author(s)},
	issn = {1758-6798},
	doi = {10.1038/s41558-018-0245-3},
	abstract = {Temperature scaling studies suggest that hourly rainfall magnitudes might increase beyond thermodynamic expectations with global warming1–3; that is, above the Clausius–Clapeyron (CC) rate of {\textasciitilde}6.5\% °C−1. However, there is limited evidence of such increases in long-term observations. Here, we calculate continental-average changes in the magnitude and frequency of extreme hourly and daily rainfall observations from Australia over the years 1990–2013 and 1966–1989. Observed changes are compared with the uncertainty from natural variability and expected changes from CC scaling as a result of global mean surface temperature change. We show that increases in daily rainfall extremes are consistent with CC scaling, but are within the range of natural variability. In contrast, changes in the magnitude of hourly rainfall extremes are close to or exceed double the expected CC scaling, and are above the range of natural variability, exceeding CC × 3 in the tropical region (north of 23° S). These continental-scale changes in extreme rainfall are not explained by changes in the El Niño–Southern Oscillation or changes in the seasonality of extremes. Our results indicate that CC scaling on temperature provides a severe underestimate of observed changes in hourly rainfall extremes in Australia, with implications for assessing the impacts of extreme rainfall.},
	language = {en},
	number = {9},
	journal = {Nature Climate Change},
	author = {Guerreiro, Selma B. and Fowler, Hayley J. and Barbero, Renaud and Westra, Seth and Lenderink, Geert and Blenkinsop, Stephen and Lewis, Elizabeth and Li, Xiao-Feng},
	year = {2018},
	keywords = {Climate change, Hydrology},
	pages = {803--807},
}

@article{GSDR:Li.etal.2020a,
	title = {Global distribution of the intensity and frequency of hourly precipitation and their responses to {ENSO}},
	volume = {54},
	issn = {1432-0894},
	doi = {10.1007/s00382-020-05258-7},
	abstract = {We investigate the global distribution of hourly precipitation and its connections with the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) using both satellite precipitation estimates and the global sub-daily rainfall gauge dataset. Despite limited moisture availability over continental surfaces, we find that the highest mean and extreme hourly precipitation intensity (HPI) values are mainly located over continents rather than over oceans, a feature that is not evident in daily or coarser resolution data. After decomposing the total precipitation into the product of the number of wet hours (NWH) and HPI, we find that ENSO modulates total precipitation mainly through the NWH, while its effects on HPI are more limited. The contrasting responses to ENSO in NWH and HPI is particularly apparent at the rising branches of the Pacific and Atlantic Walker Circulations, and is also notable over land-based gauges in Australia, Malaysia, the USA, Japan and Europe across the whole distribution of hourly precipitation (i.e. extreme, moderate and light precipitation). These results provide new insights into the global precipitation distribution and its response to ENSO forcing.},
	language = {en},
	number = {11},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Li, Xiao-Feng and Blenkinsop, Stephen and Barbero, Renaud and Yu, Jingjing and Lewis, Elizabeth and Lenderink, Geert and Guerreiro, Selma and Chan, Steven and Li, Yafei and Ali, Haider and Villalobos Herrera, Roberto and Kendon, Elizabeth and Fowler, Hayley J.},
	year = {2020},
	keywords = {ENSO, Walker circulation, Hourly precipitation extreme, Hourly precipitation frequency, Hourly precipitation intensity, Number of wet hours, Precipitation total},
	pages = {4823--4839},
}

@article{GSDR:Li.etal.2020b,
	title = {Strong {Intensification} of {Hourly} {Rainfall} {Extremes} by {Urbanization}},
	volume = {47},
	copyright = {©2020. The Authors.},
	issn = {1944-8007},
	doi = {10.1029/2020GL088758},
	abstract = {Although observations and modeling studies show that heavy rainfall is increasing in many regions, how changes will manifest themselves on sub-daily timescales remains highly uncertain. Here, for the first time, we combine observational analysis and high-resolution modeling results to examine changes to extreme rainfall intensities in urbanized Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. We find that hourly intensities of extreme rainfall have increased by 35\% over the last three decades, nearly 3 times more than in surrounding rural areas, with daily intensities showing much weaker increases. Our modeling results confirm that the urban heat island effect creates a more unstable atmosphere, increased vertical uplift and moisture convergence. This, combined with weak surface winds in the Tropics, causes intensification of rainfall extremes over the city, with reduced rainfall in the surrounding region.},
	language = {en},
	number = {14},
	journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	author = {Li, Yafei and Fowler, Hayley J. and Argüeso, Daniel and Blenkinsop, Stephen and Evans, Jason P. and Lenderink, Geert and Yan, Xiaodong and Guerreiro, Selma B. and Lewis, Elizabeth and Li, Xiao-Feng},
	year = {2020},
	pages = {e2020GL088758},
}

@article{GSDR:Barbero.etal.2019,
	title = {Contribution of large-scale midlatitude disturbances to hourly precipitation extremes in the {United} {States}},
	volume = {52},
	issn = {1432-0894},
	doi = {10.1007/s00382-018-4123-5},
	abstract = {Midlatitude synoptic weather regimes account for a substantial portion of annual precipitation accumulation as well as multi-day precipitation extremes across parts of the United States (US). However, little attention has been devoted to understanding how synoptic-scale patterns contribute to hourly precipitation extremes. A majority of 1-h annual maximum precipitation (AMP) across the western US were found to be linked to two coherent midlatitude synoptic patterns: disturbances propagating along the jet stream, and cutoff upper-level lows. The influence of these two patterns on 1-h AMP varies geographically. Over 95\% of 1-h AMP along the western coastal US were coincident with progressive midlatitude waves embedded within the jet stream, while over 30\% of 1-h AMP across the interior western US were coincident with cutoff lows. Between 30–60\% of 1-h AMP were coincident with the jet stream across the Ohio River Valley and southeastern US, whereas a a majority of 1-h AMP over the rest of central and eastern US were not found to be associated with either midlatitude synoptic features. Composite analyses for 1-h AMP days coincident to cutoff lows and jet stream show that an anomalous moisture flux and upper-level dynamics are responsible for initiating instability and setting up an environment conducive to 1-h AMP events. While hourly precipitation extremes are generally thought to be purely convective in nature, this study shows that large-scale dynamics and baroclinic disturbances may also contribute to precipitation extremes on sub-daily timescales.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	author = {Barbero, Renaud and Abatzoglou, John T. and Fowler, Hayley J.},
	year = {2019},
	keywords = {Cutoff lows, Hourly precipitation extremes, Jet stream, Synoptic patterns, United-States},
	pages = {197--208},
}

@article{GSDR:Barbero.etal.2019a,
	title = {A synthesis of hourly and daily precipitation extremes in different climatic regions},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {2212-0947},
	doi = {10.1016/j.wace.2019.100219},
	abstract = {Climatological features of observed annual maximum hourly precipitation have not been documented systematically compared to those on daily timescales due to observational limitations. Drawing from a quality-controlled database of hourly records sampling different climatic regions including the United States, Australia, the British Isles, Japan, India and peninsular Malaysia over the 1950–2016 period, we examined climatological features of annual maximum precipitation (AMP) across timescales ranging from 1-hr (AMP1−hr) to 24-hr (AMP24−hr). Our analysis reveals strong relations between the magnitude of AMP and the climatological average annual precipitation (AAP), with geographic variations in the magnitude of AMP24−hr across topographic gradients not evident in AMP1−hr. Most AMP1−hr are found to be embedded within short-duration storms ({\textgreater}70\% of AMP1−hr are embedded within 1–5 h storms), especially in regions with low AAP and in the tropical zone. Likewise, most AMP24−hr are found to be the accumulation of a very limited number of wet hours in the 24-h period ({\textgreater}80\% of AMP24−hr are due to storms lasting {\textless}15 h) across many parts of the sampled regions, highlighting the added-value of hourly data in estimating the actual precipitation intensities. The seasonal distribution of AMP may change across different timescales at a specific location, reflecting the prevalence of different seasonal triggering mechanisms. We also find that most AMP1−hr occur preferentially in late afternoon to late evening, slightly later than the usual mid-to-late afternoon peak in the mean precipitation intensity. Finally, analysis of atmospheric instability, realized through the convection available potential energy (CAPE), reveals that CAPE is higher before AMP1−hr with respect to AMP24−hr, although the response of precipitation intensity seems to saturate at higher CAPE levels, a feature evident both in the tropical and extratropical zones. This study provides insights on climatological features of hourly precipitation extremes and how they contrast with the daily extremes examined in most studies.},
	journal = {Weather and Climate Extremes},
	author = {Barbero, Renaud and Fowler, Hayley J. and Blenkinsop, Stephen and Westra, Seth and Moron, Vincent and Lewis, Elizabeth and Chan, Steven and Lenderink, Geert and Kendon, Elizabeth and Guerreiro, Selma and Li, Xiao-Feng and Villalobos, Roberto and Ali, Haider and Mishra, Vimal},
	year = {2019},
	keywords = {Diurnal cycle, Seasonal cycle, CAPE, Daily precipitation, Hourly precipitation, Precipitation duration, Precipitation intensity},
	pages = {100219},
}

@inproceedings{GSDR:Blenkinsop.etal.2018,
	title = {The {INTENSE} project: using observations and models to understand the past, present and future of sub-daily rainfall extremes},
	volume = {15},
	shorttitle = {The {INTENSE} project},
	doi = {10.5194/asr-15-117-2018},
	abstract = {Historical in situ sub-daily rainfall observations are essential for the understanding of short-duration rainfall extremes but records are typically not readily accessible and data are often subject to errors and inhomogeneities. Furthermore, these events are poorly quantified in projections of future climate change making adaptation to the risk of flash flooding problematic. Consequently, knowledge of the processes contributing to intense, short-duration rainfall is less complete compared with those on daily timescales. The INTENSE project is addressing this global challenge by undertaking a data collection initiative that is coupled with advances in high-resolution climate modelling to better understand key processes and likely future change. The project has so far acquired data from over 23\ 000 rain gauges for its global sub-daily rainfall dataset (GSDR) and has provided evidence of an intensification of hourly extremes over the US. Studies of these observations, combined with model simulations, will continue to advance our understanding of the role of local-scale thermodynamics and large-scale atmospheric circulation in the generation of these events and how these might change in the future.},
	language = {English},
	booktitle = {Advances in {Science} and {Research}},
	publisher = {Copernicus GmbH},
	author = {Blenkinsop, Stephen and Fowler, Hayley J. and Barbero, Renaud and Chan, Steven C. and Guerreiro, Selma B. and Kendon, Elizabeth and Lenderink, Geert and Lewis, Elizabeth and Li, Xiao-Feng and Westra, Seth and Alexander, Lisa and Allan, Richard P. and Berg, Peter and Dunn, Robert J. H. and Ekström, Marie and Evans, Jason P. and Holland, Greg and Jones, Richard and Kjellström, Erik and Klein-Tank, Albert and Lettenmaier, Dennis and Mishra, Vimal and Prein, Andreas F. and Sheffield, Justin and Tye, Mari R.},
	year = {2018},
	keywords = {Reference},
	pages = {117--126},
}

@article{GSDR:Moron.etal.2024,
	title = {A climatology of local hourly wet spells across the {Tropics}},
	doi = {10.21203/rs.3.rs-4582986/v1},
	abstract = {We explore the relationships amongst duration, total amount, mean and maximum hourly intensity of rainfall and spatial scale for more than a thousand rain gauges covering a diverse range of tropical and subtropical (30°N-30°S) climates, from arid (\<= 200 mm year⁻¹) to very wet (\> 3000-4000 mm year⁻¹). We find the interannual variation of seasonal (3-month) totals is primarily driven by wet hour frequency rather than the mean intensity of rainfall. A total of 3.5 million local wet spells (WS: consecutive wet hours with at least 1 mm of rain) are then systematically analyzed. WS lasting 5 hours or less account for 80\% of wet hours and of total rainfall. The amount of rainfall during a local WS is most strongly controlled by its duration and then its mean hourly intensity, but these WS characteristics are nearly independent. The 3.5 million local WS are then grouped into a reduced set of 7 “canonical” wet spells (cWS). Despite some relatively small differences amongst national networks, the seven cWS offer a general framework for tropical rainfall variability seen through the prism of the local WS. About 72\% of the WS included in two categories (cWS\#1 and \#3) are short and result in negligible amounts of rainfall. Two other categories (cWS\#2, 8.8\% of the wet spells, and \#4, 4.9\% of the wet spells) are short but with very high mean intensity and have the smallest spatial scales. Additionally, two categories (cWS \#6, 3.9\% of the WS, and cWS \#7, 0.9\% of the WS) are long-lasting, moderately intense and cover the largest areas. The final category (cWS\#5, 9.4\% of the WS) is moderately long in duration and less intense compared to cWS\#2, \#4, \#6 and \#7. Hourly extremes tend to occur primarily during cWS\#2 and cWS\#4, contributing the least to the total number of wet hours, and then during cWS\#6. Daily extremes tend to occur more in cWS\#7 and \#6, which are the longest cWS, but with a significant contribution from the short intense cWS\#4. A larger contribution of cWS\#2 and cWS\#4 to 3-month amounts tends to decrease the spatial scale of their interannual variations.},
	journal = {Research Square},
	author = {Moron, Vincent and Cornillault, Erwan and Ali, Haider and Fowler, Hayley and Robertson, Andrew},
	year = {2024},
	note = {Preprint},
}

@article{BSRN:Driemel.etal.2018,
    title = {Baseline {{Surface Radiation Network}} ({{BSRN}}): Structure and Data Description (1992--2017)},
    shorttitle = {Baseline {{Surface Radiation Network}} ({{BSRN}})},
    author = {Driemel, Amelie and Augustine, John and Behrens, Klaus and Colle, Sergio and Cox, Christopher and {Cuevas-Agull{\'o}}, Emilio and Denn, Fred M. and Duprat, Thierry and Fukuda, Masato and Grobe, Hannes and Haeffelin, Martial and Hodges, Gary and Hyett, Nicole and Ijima, Osamu and Kallis, Ain and Knap, Wouter and Kustov, Vasilii and Long, Charles N. and Longenecker, David and Lupi, Angelo and Maturilli, Marion and Mimouni, Mohamed and Ntsangwane, Lucky and Ogihara, Hiroyuki and Olano, Xabier and Olefs, Marc and Omori, Masao and Passamani, Lance and Pereira, Enio Bueno and Schmith{\"u}sen, Holger and Schumacher, Stefanie and Sieger, Rainer and Tamlyn, Jonathan and Vogt, Roland and Vuilleumier, Laurent and Xia, Xiangao and Ohmura, Atsumu and {K{\"o}nig-Langlo}, Gert},
    year = 2018,
    month = aug,
    journal = {Earth System Science Data},
    volume = {10},
    number = {3},
    pages = {1491--1501},
    publisher = {Copernicus GmbH},
    issn = {1866-3508},
    doi = {10.5194/essd-10-1491-2018},
    urldate = {2025-06-18},
    abstract = {Small changes in the radiation budget at the earth's surface can lead to large climatological responses when persistent over time. With the increasing debate on anthropogenic influences on climatic processes during the 1980s the need for accurate radiometric measurements with higher temporal resolution was identified, and it was determined that the existing measurement networks did not have the resolution or accuracy required to meet this need. In 1988 the WMO therefore proposed the establishment of a new international Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN), which should collect and centrally archive high-quality ground-based radiation measurements in 1\ min resolution. BSRN began its work in 1992 with 9 stations; currently (status 2018-01-01), the network comprises 59 stations (delivering data to the archive) and 9 candidates (stations recently accepted into the network with data forthcoming to the archive) distributed over all continents and oceanic environments. The BSRN database is the World Radiation Monitoring Center (WRMC). It is hosted at the Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI) in Bremerhaven, Germany, and now offers more than 10\ 300 months of data from the years 1992 to 2017. All data are available at https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.880000 free of charge.},
    langid = {english},
}